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Stanley Milgram"People who are doing a job as instructed by an administrative figure are following the instructions of that administrative outlook and not the outlook of a moral code. The feelings of duty and personal emotion are clearly separated. Responsibility shifts in the mind of the subordinate from himself/herself to the authority figure. There is a well defined purpose behind the actions or goals of the authority, and the subordinate is depended upon to help and meet those goals."
"There is possibility that human nature, or more specifically, the kind of character produced in American society, cannot be counted on to insulate the citizens from brutality and inhumane treatment at the direction of malevolent authority."
This theory is compatible with one of Freud's ego defensive mechanisms --"isolation" Snygg and CombsThe phenomenal field is our subjective reality, the world we are aware of, including physical objects and people and their behaviors, thoughts, images, fantasies, feelings, and ideas like justice, freedom, equality, and so on.
Differentiation
Meaning in education
28 July 弗洛伊德id (the psychic representative of biological needs), ego (relates the organism to reality through consciousness and searching for objects to satisfy the wishes created by id), superego (the record of things to avoid and strategies to take in reality or society) libido -> life instincts -> the life of the individual (food, water) & the life of the species (sex) when id and superego make conflicting demands upon the poor ego, thus leading the organism to feel threatened, overwhelmed and about to collapse, anxiety is experienced, which includes: realistic anxiety (e.g. fear, which comes from the outer, physical world) moral anxiety (e.g. guilt and shame, which comes from the internalized social world of superego) neurotic anxiety (e.g. lost of one's temper, rationality, self-control, which comes from overwhelming impulses from id) ego defensive mechanisms: the ego defends itself by unconsciously blocking the impulses or distorting them into a mroe acceptable, less threatening form. psychosexual stage theory (oral stage -> anal stage -> phallic stage -> latent stage -> genital stage) and corresponding characters due to traumas in each stage development Oedipal crisis Freudian therapy:
link: http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/freud.html http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/freud.html 26 July 威廉·詹姆士——美国心理学之父(1842-1910)
A young medical student in Harvard, he wrote favorably about effects of natural selection on mental life and observed that consciousness also obeys the laws of variation and selection
A young professor of psychology at Harvard, he anchored the study of consciousness to experimental psychology. He articulated a biologically grounded theory of instincts and linked these with psychological development of emotion and habit
At the height of his career (1890), he published two volume Principles of Psychology, beginning from a preoccupation with the object at the center of attention and advocated that psychology develop around a cognitive psychology of consciousness. "any legitimate scientific psychology must account for both the stream of thought and feeling"
Important lectures on Exceptional Mental Status: dreams and hypnotism, automatism (the body is a machine whose functions are accompanied but not controlled by consciousness), hysteria, multiple personality, etc.
His approach was empirical because it confined itself only to the facts of experience, and radical, however, in that it demanded science not ignore any aspects of reality if it could be experienced. Thus, good sciences was positivistic; but everything we needed to know was knowable through the intellect and the senses
Positivistic science shouldn't be separated from metaphysics because it was based on the metaphysics of physicalism; that is, a set of preconceived assumptions about how the physical world can be studied
Consciousness did not exist as an independent entity, but as a function of particular experiences. Consciousness and object had to be considered in the same functional complex 21 July MEDARD BOSS--存在心理学LUDWIG BINSWANGER-存在心理学存在主义(existentialism)、存在心理学(existential psychology)、现象学(phenomenology)
存在心理学是与强调hard-core experimental psychologists对立的一个笼统学派
Kurt Lewin现代社会心理学的奠基人,在MIT创立了研究Group Dynamics的研究中心,主要研究如下项目:
Group productivity; Communication; Social perception; Intergroup relations; Group membership; Training leaders.
Kurt Lewin主张研究采用在真实生活场景中的试验方法,比如:Gang behavior(解决种族信仰冲突);Law and Social Chang(从教育机构入手减少由种族歧视引起的偏见);Integration of Negro Sales Personnel。
20 July Konrad Lorenz - 动物行为的比较研究1973年的诺贝尔生理学和医学奖获得者,主要对动物和人类行为进行比较研究
发现了幼年动物的“铭记”(imprinting)现象
人类行为,甚至道德(自由意志),都是受先天制约的,由遗传而来,这一观点受到达尔文进化论的影响,而且与康德正好相反。洛伦茨认为,"人类的大脑及我们的认知能力,必定也是自然选择的产物,可见康德的先验观有其生物学上的基础。在某种意义上,先验的思维形式如同本能一样,是造化赋予物种的一种特殊秉性,一种生存技能。这种将生物学与哲学相结合的努力,就是进化认识论的诞生。"
长期跟动物住在一起,"他与驯服的雁鹅、穴乌及其他鸟类生活在一起,同时又几乎不改变它们的野生属性。要做到这一点是极不容易的。在他们家,有关人与动物的趣闻轶事层出不穷。孩子们尚小时,他的太太为了不出意外,居然把孩子关进笼里,而让各种动物自由出入。"
洛仑兹在与鸟兽鱼虫的亲密接触中发现了很多有趣的现象, 例如:“有两类动物具有可靠的抑制机制,一种是具有杀伤性手段的动物。德国有句谚语:一只乌鸦不会啄掉另一只乌鸦的眼睛。确实,乌鸦绝不会用它的利嘴去啄它的同类,一只养驯了的乌鸦也绝不会去啄它的主人。另一种就是大型群居肉食动物,如狼、狮等总是群居在一起,它们必须具有有效的抑制机制以防同类残杀。因此,一种奇异的现象是:最嗜杀的肉食动物,尤其是狼,却是动物世界中抑制力最为可靠的。与此相对照的是,不具有杀伤性武器的动物在某些情况下往往会表现出残酷的同类相残行为,如作为和平象征的鸽子,却在笼子中往死里啄它的同类。”
因此,“由于个体间牢固的联盟——爱——来自于攻击倾向,所以,洛伦茨认为,爱的对象也就是攻击的对象,换言之,有恨才有爱,没有一种爱是没有攻击性的。众所周知,哺乳动物中最有攻击性的狼对朋友是最忠实的。恨要比爱和友谊早几百万年。”
英文链接:
中文链接(基本是原文翻译):
Karen Horney - 神经症的研究Horney认为,患有神经症的人是在普通人都有的需求上产生了歪曲的结果,并将一些神经症病人的不正常需求分为三类:Compliance, Aggression, Withdrawal,与Adler的分类不谋而合。
Horney认为神经症的形成是病人年幼时得不到父母的温暖和关心,即parental indifference,Horney将其称为“基本罪恶“。
Horney指出患有神经症的人通常摇摆在“despised self”(从他人眼中看到的有缺陷的自己)和“ideal self”(认为自己缺乏哪些东西,并将这些东西作为自己的理想标准去追求),因此认识不到真正的自我,更不用提自我实现了。
此外,Horney还批判了Freud的penis envy远远不能作为女性神经症患者的普遍解释,并提出男子中也有womb envy的现象。
Horney本人的经历中充满了挫折和不幸,因此她本人在一定程度上也患有神经症。
Horney、Adler、Fromm、Sullivan常常被称为neo-Freudians。 19 July 皮亚杰对这个人应该说是比较熟悉了。最早对软体动物着迷,后来变成了儿童心理学大师,研究人类智力的起源和发展阶段,著作为“Introduction to Genetic Epistemology”
Schema-Adaptation(Assimilation/Accomodation)-Equilibrium
儿童智力发展四个阶段:
1. sensorimotor: 对实物的运动和感知产生一系列的基础反应,以及一些最初的、短暂的记忆;
2. preoperational: 可以脱离实物、使用符号,但只从自我角度进行认知、无移情,单维思考模式;
3. concrete operations: 可以对符号进行有逻辑的思考,对数字、长度和体积有了正确的概念;
4. formal operations: 对抽象事件进行抽象思考和假设思考,进入成人思考阶段。
p.s. 发现我进入formal operations的时间并不早,而且停留在preoperational的时间过长:(
also see: http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/piaget.html by someone from MIT who has been working with Piaget 14 July James Mark Baldwin他的《Mental Development》一书阐述了“自我”的社会性及成长方式,并强调这种发展具有确定的、可预测的阶段性,在社会心理学的发展中是一本中心教材 Humanistic Psychology OverviewFirst Force: Behaviorism
Second Force: Psychoanalysis and Depth Psychology
Third Force: Humanistic Psychology
08 July Hans Eysenck对气质的二维分法1. normality-neuroticism
Eysenck对靠近neuroticism一边的生理学解释是这些人的sympathetic nervous system (控制对突发事件的情感反应)比其他人更加敏感,他们甚至对自己缺陷的反应程度超过了原有事物本身。
2. extraversion-introversion
Eysenck认为外向型的人在面临不利局面时能够更好地平静心绪并保护自己,甚至过后会对当时的情景全无记忆。
后来,Eysenck还提出了第三个维度:psychoticism。其特征是鲁莽、无视常识或惯例,以及不合适的情感表达。
顽固的行为主义者,认为气质大多是与生俱来的。只有在心理学中运用生理学、统计学得出的结论才是可靠的,不相信现象学及其他定性研究方法
07 July GORDON ALLPORT 最早的人本心理学家之一与弗洛伊德和行为主义理论不同,Allport认为个体本身(the self),Allport称为“proprium”,决定了人们的大多数行为。他认为the self由人们认为的那些最本质的(essential)、最温情的(warm)和最重要(central)的经历组成的,并且具有七项功能:Sense of body, Self-identity, Self-esteem, Self-extension, Self-image, Rational coping, Propriate striving。这七项功能是在不同的年龄阶段发展起来的。
同时,人们还逐渐形成自己特有的性格气质(personal dispositions/traits)。包括common traits(与文化有关)、central traits(与the self牢不可分,如聪明、沉稳、腼腆)、secondary traits(会改变的特征,如偏好、态度)、cardinal traits(盖棺论定的特征,较少人才有,而且在生命后期才出现)。
当一个人充分形成了自我、拥有了一系列丰富且具适应性的性格气质时,就达到了心理成熟(psychological maturity)。
Allport与众不同的一个观点:一个人的现在与他/她的过去没有多大关系,即他所说的functional autonomy。functional autonomy包括两类:早已失去最初目的、仅仅成为持续性的习惯,比如吸烟;有自我取向(self-directed)的价值观(values),Allport提出了以下几个类别的价值:
1. the theoretical -- a scientist, for example, values truth.
2. the economic -- a businessperson may value usefulness. 3. the aesthetic -- an artist naturally values beauty. 4. the social -- a nurse may have a strong love of people. 5. the political -- a politician may value power. 6. the religious -- a monk or nun probably values unity. 多数人在不同层次上具有多种价值。
06 July George Kelly:cognitivist的先驱普通人运用着与科学家类似的方法来认识、改造世界和自我。不同的主观观点都是有意义的,虽然在特定情况下其中一些观点比另一些要好——Kelly称之为constructive alternativism的哲学思想。
Kelly的基本假定:一个人的经历、想法、情感、行为等过程不是由外在现实决定的,而是由他/她对事物的期望所构造的。在此基础上,他得出了11项推论,例如:一个人的期望来源于他/她的construction system,即对已有经历的形成的知识、理解等(construction corollary);他/她的实践经验又会调整已有的construction system(experience corollary);此外还有dichotomy/organization/range/ modulation/choice/individuality/commonality/fragmentation/society等九项推论(这九项从哪儿冒出来的?)。
上述概念和理论体系不仅适用于认知过程,同时也适用于感知、行为和情感过程。例如Kelly对焦虑、威胁、内疚、主动性、敌意的解释。
Kelly的治疗法主要采用角色扮演(role-playing),以帮助病人通过更换视角更好地了解他人和自己。
27 June Erik Erikson在弗洛伊德理论基础上,更加关心社会文化的作用,提出人格发展的八个阶段
八个阶段可以平分为两个对称的区间:前四个阶段(同弗洛伊德的划分)是要"develop a competent ego",后四个阶段(将弗洛伊德的第五阶段再进行细分)是要"realize one's self" |
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